What Apes Can Teach Us About Gender By Frans De Waal — Review

A world-famous primatologist explores what we know of biological sex differences, the role of culture and socialization and considers what sets us apart from our closest relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos

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Sex and gender are often confused despite their fundamental differences. Basically, sex is the product of biology, with genetic, physiological and anatomical traits that differ between the sexes. Gender, on the other hand, is a psychological and social construct that results from training, experience and the social environment that surrounds and influences individuals. Much of the controversy regarding human gender roles stems from this mix of nature versus nurture expressed by individuals — and by how others view and judge these expressions.

But how can we identify which behaviors are driven by biology and which are the result of social and cultural conditioning? One such scientific discipline is primatology, which studies and compares human behaviors with those of our closest evolutionary relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos.

Frans de Waal, author of Different: What Apes Can Teach Us About Gender (Granta Books, 2022: Amazon US / Amazon UK), is a primatologist, so his training and professional experiences have influenced his perspectives on the origins of human behaviors. But that said, Dr de Waal does rely upon other scientific disciplines to bolster his argument that there are clear differences between the genders that are innate and thus, are resistant to cultural modifications.

Oddly, Dr de Waal apparently doesn’t have a theory of gender himself, other than his unexplained proposal that an early ‘self-socialisation’ process can mysteriously lead some youngsters to map and model themselves on the opposite sex rather than their own.

Dr de Waal does recognize that we can modify some of our behaviors via culture, whilst other behaviors remain beyond our reach. To support this observation, he brings up the highly controversial topic of gender identity versus sexual orientation, where individuals who identify as a particular gender or sexual orientation cannot be “socialized” into changing their perception of themselves. This is important because homosexual and transgender rights depend on our acceptance that these identities are innate — not a choice.

But weirdly, although Dr de Waal takes pains to make sure his readers understand the differences between sex and gender, he then proceeds to use these terms interchangeably throughout the rest of the book. (He does warn us he will do this, without considering that his sloppiness blurs these terms unnecessarily, creating the impression they are not as distinct as he claims.) Further, his inattention to detail is obvious throughout the entire book, although the general quality of his writing masks serious problems with his scientific accuracy, at the very least. The most glaring example is that he barely mentions hormones and the critically important roles they play in brain development and their influence on behaviors. Considering that this book focuses on the highly controversial topic of sex versus gender, how can the author be so careless as to overlook the fundamental and overarching contributions of hormones?

Dr de Waal also makes a lot of peculiar statements. For example, he makes the laughably absurd claim that lower class “men and women are equally exploited, mistreated, and impoverished”. Wow. Seriously? Has he spoken to any “lower class” women about this? Especially women of color? I do not think so!

Another peculiar statement that de Waal makes is supported, not by actual primate studies (where his expertise lies), but by, um, surveys:

“Men, to feel fulfilled and successful need to excel at something — to be better at it than other men and better than women.

Every civilization needs to offer men opportunities to realize their potential. A recent survey of seventy different countries confirmed this difference. Universally, men put more value on independence, self-enhancement, and status, whereas women emphasize the well-being and security of their inner circle as well as people in general.

To feel accomplised, women always have their biological potential to give birth. It’s the one thing they can do men can’t.” (p. 28)

Overall, the writing is charming and filled with fascinating anecdotes about primate behaviors that many will enjoy. The author shares some truly interesting primate research, which raise a lot of unanswered questions about the effects of biology on behavior. His main argument is that “equality doesn’t require similarity. People can be different and still deserve exactly the same rights and opportunities” (p. 14). is not one that any rational person would dispute — and yet Dr de Waal does just this in his book. I thought there are a lot of problems in this book with scientific accuracy as well as the author’s inherent sexism, both of which I found offensive.

Different has been shortlisted for the Royal Society Science Book Prize of 2022.

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